Efficient Uptake of Basic Blue 41 by Alginate-Based Hydrogel Beads Loaded with KOH-Activated Walnut Shell Carbon: Equilibrium Modeling and Error Function Analysis
Abstract
Cationic dyes such as Basic Blue 41 (BB41) leave textile effluents strongly colored and are not easily broken down. In this work, walnut shells were converted into activated carbon (WSAC), and the carbon was entrapped in sodium alginate-g-poly(acrylic acid) hydrogel beads (SA-g-PAA/WSAC). The beads were then tested for BB41 removal in batch mode. Their point of zero charge was 5.8, and they swelled most at pH 8 (76.7 g g-1, Schott model). Removal rose from 22.6% at pH 2 to 95.2% at pH 8, using 1.0 g L−1 of beads and 50 mg L−1 of dye. Uptake obeyed the pseudo-second-order model (R² ≥ 0.989), and intraparticle diffusion proceeded in three stages. Six isotherm models were fitted by non-linear regression to equilibrium data at 25 °C. They were ranked with seven error functions, the sum of normalized errors (SNE), information criteria and leave-one-out cross-validation. Redlich–Peterson (g = 0.746) and Sips (ns = 0.60) gave the lowest SNE, 1.04 and 1.20, which points to heterogeneous binding sites. Temkin was the weakest model and even predicted negative uptake at the lowest concentration. The Langmuir capacity was 188.0 ± 11.1 mg g−1, yet it shifted from 161 to 202 mg g−1 with the error function minimized, and linearized fitting distorted it further. Adsorption was spontaneous and endothermic (ΔH° = +26.7 kJ mol−1; ΔG° = −7.4 to −10.8 kJ mol−1). After six cycles with 0.1 M HCl, the beads still kept 71% of their first-cycle capacity.
Keywords:
Basic Blue 41, Sodium alginate, Walnut shell activated carbon, Hydrogel beads, Non-linear isotherm modeling, Error functions
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References
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4. Sivagami, K., Anand, D., Divyapriya, G., Nambi, I. (2024). Photocatalytic degradation of toxic basic blue 41 and reactive orange M2R dyes using green synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society 101(10), 101326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jics.2024.101326
5. Dutta, S., Gupta, B., Srivastava, S.K., Gupta, A.K. (2021). Recent advances on the removal of dyes from wastewater using various adsorbents: A criti-cal review. Materials Advances 2(14), 4497–4531. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1MA00354B
6. Benjelloun, M., Miyah, Y., Evrendilek, G.A., Zer-rouq, F., Lairini, S. (2021). Recent advances in ad-sorption kinetic models: Their application to dye types. Arabian Journal of Chemistry 14(4), 103031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103031
7. Wisniewska, M., Urban, T., Tokarska, K., Mar-ciniak, P., Giel, A., Nowicki, P. (2024). Removal of organic dyes, polymers and surfactants using car-bonaceous materials derived from walnut shells. Materials 17(9), 1987. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17091987
8. Khalili, S., Khoshandam, B., Jahanshahi, M. (2026). Preparation of high specific surface area activated carbon from walnut shells by microwave-induced KOH activation. Water Environment Research 98(10), e70584. https://doi.org/10.1002/wer.70584
9. Toptas, Y., Toptas, M. (2025). Activated carbon from walnut shell for Reactive Blue 19 dye re-moval. International Journal of Environmental Ana-lytical Chemistry 105(19), 8450–8474. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2025.2477822
10. McCaffrey, Z., Torres, L.F., Chiou, B.S., Hart-Cooper, W.M., McMahan, C.M., Orts, W.J. (2024). Almond and walnut shell activated carbon for me-thylene blue adsorption. ACS Sustainable Resource Management 1(7), 1421–1431. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssusresmgt.4c00080
11. Radoor, S., Karayil, J., Jayakumar, A., Kandel, D.R., Kim, J.T., Siengchin, S., Lee, J. (2024). Recent ad-vances in cellulose- and alginate-based hydrogels for water and wastewater treatment: A review. Carbohydrate Polymers 323, 121339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.121339
12. Mozaffari, T., Keshtkar Vanashi, A., Ghasemzadeh, H. (2021). Nanocomposite hydrogel based on so-dium alginate, poly(acrylic acid), and tetraammine-copper(II) sulfate as an efficient dye adsorbent. Carbohydrate Polymers 267, 118182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118182
13. Alamin, N.U., Khan, A.S., Nasrullah, A., Iqbal, J., Ullah, Z., Din, I.U., Muhammad, N., Khan, S.Z. (2021). Activated carbon-alginate beads impreg-nated with surfactant as sustainable adsorbent for efficient removal of methylene blue. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 176, 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.02.017
14. Liu, H., Zhu, J., Li, Q., Li, L., Huang, Y., Wang, Y., Fan, G., Zhang, L. (2023). Adsorption performance of methylene blue by KOH/FeCl3 modified bio-char/alginate composite beads derived from agri-cultural waste. Molecules 28(6), 2507. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28062507
15. Isnaini, M.D., Vanichsetakul, B., Phisalaphong, M. (2024). Alginate-based hydrogel bead reinforced with montmorillonite clay and bacterial cellulose-activated carbon as an effective adsorbent for re-moving dye from aqueous solution. Gels 10(9), 597. https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10090597
16. Mosaffa, E., Patel, R.I., Banerjee, A., Basak, B.B., Oroujzadeh, M. (2024). Comprehensive analysis of cationic dye removal from synthetic and industrial wastewater using a semi-natural curcumin grafted biochar/poly acrylic acid composite hydrogel. RSC Advances 14(11), 7745–7762. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA08521J
17. Mohammadzadeh Pakdel, P., Peighambardoust, S.J., Arsalani, N., Aghdasinia, H. (2022). Safranin-O cationic dye removal from wastewater using car-boxymethyl cellulose-grafted-poly(acrylic acid-co-itaconic acid) nanocomposite hydrogel. Environ-mental Research 212, 113201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113201
18. Majeed, H.J., Jasim, L.S. (2024). [FULL TITLE NEEDED]. Desalination and Water Treatment 320, 100822. [DOI NEEDED]
19. Hussain, N.A., Jasim, L.S. (2025). Synthesis and characterization of kappa (κ)-carrageenan-grafted poly(acrylic acid-co-itaconic acid)/multi-walled car-bon nanotube (κC-g-poly(AAc-co-IA)/MWCNT) composite for removing safranin-O dye from aqueous solution. Process Safety and Environ-mental Protection 195, 106828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2025.106828
20. Almansarawi, S.A., Jasim, L.S. (2026). [FULL TITLE NEEDED]. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia 40(3), 533–550. [DOI NEEDED]
21. Yass, D.A., Almansarawi, S.A., Hussain, N.A., Jasim, L.S. (2026). Experimental and computational study of basic blue 41 adsorption onto Ceratophyllum demersum-grafted poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide) nanocomposite hydrogel: Kinetics, thermodynamics, DFT, and MD simulations. Chemical Physics Impact 12, 101066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chphi.2026.101066
22. Rafak, S.H., Jasim, L.S. (2025). Synthesis of novel bentonite/pectin-grafted-poly(crotonic acid-co-acrylic acid) hydrogel nanocomposite for adsorp-tive removal of safranin O dye from aqueous solu-tion. International Journal of Environmental Ana-lytical Chemistry 105(16), 3934–3957. https://doi.org/10.1080/03067319.2024.2356711
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Alqurashi, N. .K. “Efficient Uptake of Basic Blue 41 by Alginate-Based Hydrogel Beads Loaded With KOH-Activated Walnut Shell Carbon: Equilibrium Modeling and Error Function Analysis”. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Chemistry, Vol. 7, no. 2, Oct. 2026, pp. 93-105, doi:10.46796/ijpc.v7i2.971.
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