ADVANCED NANOMATERIAL SURFACES FOR THE DETECTION AND REMOVAL OF ORGANIC AND MICROBIAL POLLUTANTS IN WATER: A REVIEW
Abstract
Water security increasingly depends on confronting two distinct but related problems: organic micropollutants pesticides, dyes, pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and microbial contaminants ranging from antibiotic-resistant bacteria to enteric viruses. Both categories are typically present at very low concentrations, both must be reliably measured before they can be treated, and both have historically been handled by separate technologies and instruments. This review takes the surface chemistry of advanced nanomaterials as the unifying thread. We argue that the same features high specific area, accessible donor groups, photoactive band structures and tunable porosity that allow a nanostructured surface to bind, signal or transduce an analyte are very often the features that allow that same surface to degrade, sequester or inactivate the contaminant. We survey the principal material families (semiconductor photocatalysts including TiO₂, ZnO and g-C₃N₄, carbon-based materials, plasmonic metals, MOFs and COFs, magnetic iron oxides and MXenes) and the corresponding analytical approaches: electrochemical sensors, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, fluorescent quantum-dot and carbon-dot probes, and aptamer- and antibody-based bio-recognition platforms. We then turn to adsorptive, photocatalytic and antimicrobial mechanisms including reactive-oxygen-species generation, contact-mediated membrane disruption and oligodynamic ion release and to the emerging class of dual-function “same-surface” platforms that perform detection and remediation in a single step. Practical challenges of selectivity in real matrices, regeneration, biocompatibility and scale-up are highlighted, together with the directions that are most likely to bring laboratory performance into field deployment.
Keywords:
Nanomaterials, organic pollutants, microbial contaminants, photocatalysis, antimicrobial, biosensors, same-surface platforms, water treatment
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References
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2. US Environmental Protection Agency. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. EPA 816-F-09-004; 2009 (and subsequent revisions).
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4. Stoller MD, Park S, Zhu Y, An J, Ruoff RS. Graphene-based ultracapacitors. Nano Lett. 2008;8(10):3498–3502.
5. Hochella MF, Mogk DW, Ranville J, Allen IC, Luther GW, Marr LC, et al. Natural, incidental, and engineered nanomaterials and their impacts on the Earth system. Science. 2019;363(6434):eaau8299.
6. World Health Organization. Atrazine in Drinking-water: Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. WHO/HSE/WSH/10.01/11; 2011.
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11. Fujishima A, Honda K. Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode. Nature. 1972;238(5358):37–38.
12. Hoffmann MR, Martin ST, Choi W, Bahnemann DW. Environmental applications of semiconductor photocatalysis. Chem Rev. 1995;95(1):69–96.
13. Synergistic photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue using TiO₂ composites with activated carbon and reduced graphene oxide. Appl Water Sci. 2024 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
14. Wang X, Maeda K, Thomas A, Takanabe K, Xin G, Carlsson JM, Domen K, Antonietti M. A metal-free polymeric photocatalyst for hydrogen production from water under visible light. Nat Mater. 2009;8(1):76–80.
15. Hummers WS, Offeman RE. Preparation of graphitic oxide. J Am Chem Soc. 1958;80(6):1339.
16. Crini G. Non-conventional low-cost adsorbents for dye removal: a review. Bioresour Technol. 2006;97(9):1061–1085.
17. Sun YP, Zhou B, Lin Y, Wang W, Fernando KAS, Pathak P, et al. Quantum-sized carbon dots for bright and colorful photoluminescence. J Am Chem Soc. 2006;128(24):7756–7757.
18. Sondi I, Salopek-Sondi B. Silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agent: a case study on E. coli as a model for Gram-negative bacteria. J Colloid Interface Sci. 2004;275(1):177–182.
19. Morones JR, Elechiguerra JL, Camacho A, Holt K, Kouri JB, Ramírez JT, Yacaman MJ. The bactericidal effect of silver nanoparticles. Nanotechnology. 2005;16(10):2346–2353.
20. Furukawa H, Cordova KE, O’Keeffe M, Yaghi OM. The chemistry and applications of metal–organic frameworks. Science. 2013;341(6149):1230444.
21. Côté AP, Benin AI, Ockwig NW, O’Keeffe M, Matzger AJ, Yaghi OM. Porous, crystalline, covalent organic frameworks. Science. 2005;310(5751):1166–1170.
22. Kobielska PA, Howarth AJ, Farha OK, Nayak S. Metal–organic frameworks for heavy metal removal from water. Coord Chem Rev. 2018;358:92–107.
23. Wang C, Liu X, Demir NK, Chen JP, Li K. Applications of water-stable metal–organic frameworks. Chem Soc Rev. 2016;45(18):5107–5134.
24. Naguib M, Mochalin VN, Barsoum MW, Gogotsi Y. 25th anniversary article: MXenes — A new family of two-dimensional materials. Adv Mater. 2014;26(7):992–1005.
25. Bard AJ, Faulkner LR. Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley; 2001.
26. Brillas E, Sirés I, Oturan MA. Electro-Fenton process and related electrochemical technologies based on Fenton’s reaction chemistry. Chem Rev. 2009;109(12):6570–6631.
27. Joung CK, Kim HN, Lim MC, Jeon TJ, Kim HY, Kim YR. A nanoporous membrane-based impedimetric immunosensor for label-free detection of pathogenic bacteria in whole milk. Biosens Bioelectron. 2013;44:210–215.
28. Fleischmann M, Hendra PJ, McQuillan AJ. Raman spectra of pyridine adsorbed at a silver electrode. Chem Phys Lett. 1974;26(2):163–166.
29. Le Ru EC, Etchegoin PG. Single-molecule surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy. Annu Rev Phys Chem. 2012;63:65–87.
30. Wang Y, Hu A. Carbon quantum dots: synthesis, properties and applications. J Mater Chem C. 2014;2(34):6921–6939.
31. New application of bimetallic Ag/Pt nanoplates in a colorimetric biosensor for specific detection of E. coli in water. RSC Adv. / equivalent. 2024 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
32. Song S, Wang L, Li J, Fan C, Zhao J. Aptamer-based biosensors. TrAC Trends Anal Chem. 2008;27(2):108–117.
33. Ultrasensitive and specific electrochemical detection of Escherichia coli via functionalised magnetic nanoparticles. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2025 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
34. Haupt K, Mosbach K. Molecularly imprinted polymers and their use in biomimetic sensors. Chem Rev. 2000;100(7):2495–2504.
35. Pignatello JJ, Oliveros E, MacKay A. Advanced oxidation processes for organic contaminant destruction based on the Fenton reaction and related chemistry. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol. 2006;36(1):1–84.
36. Ali I, Asim M, Khan TA. Low-cost adsorbents for the removal of organic pollutants from wastewater. J Environ Manage. 2012;113:170–183.
37. Langmuir I. The adsorption of gases on plane surfaces of glass, mica and platinum. J Am Chem Soc. 1918;40(9):1361–1403.
38. Freundlich H. Über die Adsorption in Lösungen. Z Phys Chem. 1906;57:385–470.
39. Lagergren S. Zur Theorie der sogenannten Adsorption gelöster Stoffe. K Sven Vetenskapsakad Handl. 1898;24(4):1–39.
40. Ho YS, McKay G. Pseudo-second order model for sorption processes. Process Biochem. 1999;34(5):451–465.
41. Weber WJ, Morris JC. Kinetics of adsorption on carbon from solution. J Sanit Eng Div ASCE. 1963;89(2):31–60.
42. Linsebigler AL, Lu G, Yates JT. Photocatalysis on TiO₂ surfaces: principles, mechanisms, and selected results. Chem Rev. 1995;95(3):735–758.
43. Photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue using TiO₂ nanoparticles synthesised via the sol–gel method. React Kinet Mech Catal. 2025 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
44. Liu Y, Tourbin M, Lachaize S, Guiraud P. Nanoparticles in wastewaters: hazards, fate and remediation. Powder Technol. 2014;255:149–156.
45. Hu W, Peng C, Luo W, Lv M, Li X, Li D, Huang Q, Fan C. Graphene-based antibacterial paper. ACS Nano. 2010;4(7):4317–4323.
46. Akhavan O, Ghaderi E. Toxicity of graphene and graphene oxide nanowalls against bacteria. ACS Nano. 2010;4(10):5731–5736.
47. Synergistic antibacterial activity of silver-loaded graphene oxide towards S. aureus and E. coli. Nanomaterials. 2020 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
48. Photoactive Zr–porphyrin MOF for dual fluorescence detection and visible-light photocatalytic degradation of the neonicotinoid nitenpyram. 2020 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
49. Ran J et al. Rational design of MOF-based multifunctional bio-nanoreactor for efficient detection and photo-degradation of chloramphenicol. Adv Sci. 2025 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
50. Cobalt MOF sandwich-sheet for SERS detection and photocatalytic degradation of 4-aminothiophenol. Chem Eng J. 2021 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
51. Cu₂O/g-C₃N₄ dual-functional p–n heterojunctions: a high-performance SERS sensor and photocatalytic self-cleaning system for water pollution detection and remediation. Nanoscale. 2024 [full bibliographic details to be verified].
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21/06/2026
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Najm, H. F., and M. N. Al-Fiydh. “ADVANCED NANOMATERIAL SURFACES FOR THE DETECTION AND REMOVAL OF ORGANIC AND MICROBIAL POLLUTANTS IN WATER: A REVIEW”. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Chemistry, Vol. 7, no. 2, June 2026, pp. 9-18, doi:10.46796/ijpc.v7i2.912.
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